Delirium y delirium subsindrómico: prevalencia de un espectro de enfermedad / Subsyndromal delirium: prevalence of a disease spectrum

Introducción: El delirium subsindrómico (DSS) es una entidad en debate, que supone un espectro de enfermedad más allá de la dicotomía diagnóstica del delirium según los criterios actuales. Material y métodos: Para cuantificar y objetivar la prevalencia del DSS se ha realizado un estudio transversal multicéntrico con carácter posteriormente prospectivo a todos los pacientes ingresados en 3 Servicios de Geriatría de hospitales terciarios. Los criterios diagnósticos de DSS utilizados se basaron en los de Marcantonio, y también se utilizó la escala DRS-R-98 como variable continua del grado de delirium. Resultados: Se estudiaron 85 pacientes, 56% mujeres, Barthel 62 (DE: 32), edad 87 años (DE: 6), CIRS-G 24 (DE: 6,85). El 75,3% de los pacientes tenía al menos un criterio CAM positivo, y la mitad al menos 13 puntos en el DRS-R-98. La prevalencia de delirium fue del 53%, y la de DSS del 22,3%. El grado de delirium-DSS aparece asociado con los diferentes síndromes geriátricos, nivel de desnutrición, y grado de deterioro funcional y cognitivo con una tendencia lineal significativa entre grupos. Los pacientes sin delirium tienen niveles más altos que los que presentan delirium subsindrómico, y estos a su vez más altos que aquellos sin diagnóstico de delirium. También hay tendencia en el grado de delirium medido mediante el DRS-R-98. Conclusión: Más allá del concepto dicotómico sobre la presencia o ausencia de delirium, este trabajo sugiere la probable continuidad del proceso cognitivo y la posibilidad de establecer medidas diagnósticoterapéuticas más eficaces en un momento cronológico más precoz(AU)

Introduction: Subsyndromal delirium (SSD) is a developing concept of disease with a spectrum beyond the diagnostic dichotomy of delirium with standard criteria. Material and methods: To study the prevalence and significance of SSD we have conducted a crosssectional prospective multicenter study of all patients admitted to three Geriatric Departments in tertiary hospitals. The SSD diagnostic criteria used were based on Marcantonio¢§©¥s criteria, and the DRS-R-98 scale was also used as a continuous variable of the degree of delirium. Results: We studied 85 patients, 56% women, Barthel 62 (SD: 32), age 87 (SD: 6), CIRS-G 24 (SD: 6.85). Three quarters (75.3%) of patients had at least one CAM positive item, and half of them with at least 13 points in the DRS-R-98 scale. The prevalence of delirium was 53% and 22.3% for SSD. The degree of delirium-DSS was associated with different geriatric syndromes, levels of malnutrition, and degree of functional and cognitive impairment, with a significant linear trend between groups. Patients without delirium have higher levels than those with subsyndromal delirium, and these in turn are higher than those without diagnosed delirium. There is also a tendency in the degree of delirium measured by the DRS-R-98(AU)

Alcohol withdrawal syndrome: how to predict, prevent, diagnose and treat it.

(1) When people who are physically dependent on alcohol stop drinking, they experience an alcohol withdrawal syndrome. The symptoms generally resolve spontaneously within a week, but more severe forms may be associated with generalised seizures, hallucinations and delirium tremens, which can be fatal. (2) We carried out a literature review in order to obtain answers to the following questions: how to predict or rapidly diagnose a severe alcohol withdrawal syndrome; how to prevent and treat this syndrome; how to manage severe forms; and how to deal with the risk of vitamin B1 deficiency. (3) The main risk factors for severe withdrawal syndrome are: chronic heavy drinking; a history of generalised seizures; and a history of delirium tremens. (4) Anxiety, agitation, tremor, excessive sweating, altered consciousness and hallucinations are signs of a severe withdrawal syndrome. (5) Individual support and effective communication seem to reduce the risk of severe withdrawal syndrome. (6) Oral benzodiazepines are the best-assessed drugs for preventing a severe alcohol withdrawal syndrome, particularly the risk of seizures. When given for a maximum of 7 days, the adverse effects are usually mild. (7) Clinical trials of other antiepileptics suggest they are less effective than benzodiazepines, and their addition to benzodiazepine therapy offers no tangible advantage. (8) Betablockers increase the risk of hallucinations, and clonidine increases the risk of nightmares, and the efficacy of these two drugs is not well documented. Neuroleptics increase the risk of seizures. There are no convincing data to support the use of magnesium sulphate or meprobamate (the latter carries a risk of serious adverse effects). Acamprosate, naltrexone and disulfiram are not beneficial in alcohol withdrawal. (9) Gradual withdrawal, i.e. ingestion of decreasing amounts of alcohol, has not been compared with other methods but is generally not recommended. (10) There are no specific recommendations on hydration. Note that excessive water-sodium intake carries a risk of pulmonary oedema in patients with heart disease. (11) As vitamin B1 deficiency is frequent and can lead to serious complications in alcohol-dependent patients, oral vitamin B1 supplementation is widely recommended, despite the absence of comparative trials. High doses must be used to compensate for poor absorption. Intravenous administration is best if patients have very poor nutritional status or severe complications such as Gayet-Wernicke encephalopathy (a medical emergency), even though rare anaphylactic reactions have been reported after vitamin B1 injection. (12) Planned alcohol withdrawal in specialised hospital units has been extensively studied. Outpatient withdrawal may be more appropriate for patients who are at low risk of developing severe withdrawal syndrome. (13) A large proportion of alcohol-dependent patients were excluded from trials of withdrawal strategies. These include elderly patients, patients with serious psychiatric or somatic disorders, and patients who are also dependent on other substances. (14) An oral benzodiazepine is the best-assessed treatment for a single episode of generalised seizures or hallucinations during alcohol withdrawal. (15) In randomised comparative trials benzodiazepines were more effective than neuroleptics in preventing delirium-related mortality. Currently, with appropriate fluid-electrolyte support, continuous monitoring of vital signs, and respiratory support if necessary, the mortality rate for delirium tremens is under 3%. (16) In practice, patients who are attempting to stop drinking alcohol need close personal support and communication, and a reassuring environment, as well as regular monitoring for early signs of a withdrawal syndrome; the latter may require benzodiazepine therapy.

Implementation and clinical audit of alcohol detoxification guidelines.

This article describes the implementation and clinical audit of alcohol detoxification guidelines at the Royal Cornwall Hospital. The progress in developing a hospital alcohol strategy as recommended by the Royal College of Physicians (2001) is also reviewed. The Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol (revised) (Sullivan et al, 1989) is used to assess the alcohol-dependent patient's baseline requirement for their detoxification regimen in the first 24 hours of their care. The prevention and treatment of Wernicke's encephalopathy by parenteral and oral vitamin supplementation is also given a high priority in the guidelines. The clinical audit demonstrates high levels of compliance with the guidelines that were used effectively by the nursing and medical staff in their care of patients with alcohol withdrawal, with high levels of referral to the psychiatric liaison nurse service for brief intervention alcohol counselling and referral to community alcohol services.

[Can alcoholic withdrawal delirium be prevented?]. / Gibt es eine Prophylaxe des Alkoholentzugssyndroms?

In alcohol-dependent in-patients, an adequate drug prophylaxis should be made in order to lower the degree of a developing alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) or to prevent a life-threatening delirium tremens. Pre-condition of successful therapy is a precise diagnosis. In patients, the beginning of whose abstinence is known, carefully-targeted pharmacological interventions can prevent severe imbalances of neurotransmitters. Typical time courses of destabilisation of neural balances should be considered. Since there is no single drug which is able to influence various transmitter systems, normally the use of drug combinations is necessary. In ENT-patients, traumatologic patients and patients from the department of maxillo-facial surgery, screening methods based on a simply-structured questionnaire relating to information from the patient and his surroundings and selected laboratory parameters should be used. High-risk patients who could get an AWS or delirium tremens should be treated prophylactically during their oral premedication period. Important drugs for successful prophylaxis of an AWS are benzodiazepines, clonidin, magnesium and vitamin B 1. A close-meshed control of the glucose metabolism, electrolyte and acid-base balance should be performed. Neuroleptica can be used if there is any indication for their adjuvant use. In severe cases that require deep sedation or hypnosis, propofol or gamma-hydroxy-butyric acid should be used. Perioperative infusion of alcohol as a prophylactic agent against delirium tremens is regarded as an obsolete therapeutic measure for ethical reasons and because equally good or better results can be achieved by carefully-targeted drug therapy. Due to its easy use, however, the application of alcohol has not yet completely disappeared from the therapeutic spectrum.

Clinical pathway effects on treatment of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

We investigated whether initiating a clinical pathway, that incorporated the use of an alcohol withdrawal assessment scale, would decrease length of stay (LOS) for and/or amount of benzodiazepine prescribed during uncomplicated alcohol detoxification. We retrospectively reviewed alcohol detoxification admissions on an inpatient unit: 66 admissions before, 56 after, and 75 admissions 1-year after initiation of the pathway. Admissions were grouped into completers and non-completers. Comparison of group means before and after pathway implementation demonstrated a significant decrease in LOS for completers of the detoxification service from 7.35 to 4.77 days, and from 6.67 to 4.31 days for all admissions. Similarly, total benzodiazepine exposure decreased to a third of the mg amount given per admission prior to the pathway. There were no increases in the "irregular" discharge rate or complication rate. These findings suggest that a clinical pathway, with an incorporated withdrawal assessment scale, can decrease LOS and benzodiazepine prescribing on an alcohol detoxification unit.

Tiapridal.

Two groups of medically comparable patients at the Pelgrim Centre were used to study the use of tiapridal in alcoholic detoxication. The first group of nearly 450 patients were treated with traditional medication between 1973 and mid-1976, and second group of some 540 subjects displaying somato-dependency were treated with tiapridal between mid-1976 and mid-1979. 40 % of the latter group required IM injections, but 4 tablets per day were sufficient for the remainder, with Nootropil and benzodiazepine soporifics where necessary ; medication was discontinued when symptoms disappeared (after 1 week in 40 % of the cases). Tiapridal was found to be especially useful for the 9.9 % who had a history of delirium tremens, and for sub-acute alcoholic delirium, the average stay due to this being reduced from 4 to 3 days and the incidence decrease from 7,8 to 1,4 %. There was also a great reduction in gastro-intestinal disorders and general physical craving. However, it was found that tiapridal increased the incidence of all forms of epilepsy by alcohol deprivation from 3.18 to 4.19, and detoxication epilepsy increased from 0.58 to 1.47, therefore anti-epileptic medication is indicated in many cases. On the whole, general recovery was smoother and quicker and tiapridal was highly satisfactory.